OAXACA ARTICLES©
by María Díaz

History of Oaxaca
Día de los Muertos
December Fiestas

 

In three installments we will present a history of Oaxaca, its people, traditions and activities. We begin in this article with the pre-Hispanic era, to be followed by the colonial and the modern eras.

For more than three millennia prior to the Spanish invasion in 1521, there flourished in what is now the State of Oaxaca, sixteen ethnic groups, each with its language, customs and traditions existed in this paradise of mountains, valleys and tropical forests embroidered with the silver strands of rivers and streams: - from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the north and west - roughly to a line drawn from Veracruz to Acapulco; and from the Pacific to less than 100 kilometers from the Gulf of Mexico.

It was a quiet world by today's standards, no vehicular traffic, no large animals. The people lived in small settlements nestled among the pristine fertility of land and sea. In their mountain enclaves and fertile valleys, the people planted corn, beans and chocolate, tomatoes, chiles, squash, pumpkin and gourds. There were pineapples, avocados and zapotes.

Primary sources of meat were the tepezcuintle, the turkey (which was domesticated early on), other fowl, deer, jabalí, armadillo and iguana. The rivers yielded freshwater varieties of marine life and fishing was an important occupation in the coastal areas where the fruits of the sea were diverse and abundant

Villages were basically extended family groups with a patriarchal form of communal authority. As the population grew, the political organization became more complex and sophisticated. Of the sixteen ethnias, two continued to expand in numbers and territory -- the Mixtecs and the Zapotecs.

The Mixtecs inhabited the southern portions of what are now the states of Guerrero and Puebla, moving south and eastward through Huajuapam, Tlaxiaco and Nochixtlán, to the Pacific Coast around Pinotepa and Jamiltepec, eventually arriving in the Central Valley of Oaxaca. They were prolific expansionists and builders, leaving behind numerous as yet unexplored sites throughout the region.

In the Sierra Norte Valley and spreading to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec were the Zapotecs, astronomers who knew the use of the zero, and builders who leveled a mountain top to build the ceremonial center now called Monte Albán. Other important sites were built at Mitla, Lambityeco, Dainzu, Yagul, Zaachila and Guiengola, all in various stages of excavation and restoration today. The Zapotec village of Teotitlán del Valle near the city of Oaxaca, known for its exquisite handwoven wool tapestries, is one of the oldest human settlements in México.

Sometime around the Thirteenth Century AD, the Mixtecs invaded the Central Valley, conquering the Zapotecs and adding their influence to the sites of Monte Albán and, most notably, Mitla, as well as influencing the language and customs. The other 14 groups were spread throughout the state and, while they did not achieve the numbers and influence attained by the Zapotecs and Mixtecs, they, nevertheless, represent an important factor in the historical and cultural panorama of Oaxaca.

From earliest times to the Conquest, the principal economic activities were agriculture, fishing, hunting and mining. Gold and silver were fashioned into exquisite adornments and in this activity the Mixtecs excelled, with their use of the lost wax process. Beautiful objects, for decoration and for everyday use, were elaborated from alabaster, turquoise, jadeite, marble, onyx and stone. Blessed with a tremendous variety of native clays, talented hands formed vessels and figures -utilitarian and objets d'art, natural and polychromed.

In the forests they hunted the plumes of the legendary quetzal. From nopal (kind of cactus), they carefully harvested the cochineal (tiny insect) from which they made the most precious red dye. From the rocks of the lonely Pacific coves, with infinite delicacy, they gathered small snails which were made to secrete their unique majestic purple dye, carefully returning them in order to preserve them for the next perilous visit.

The stately palm provided coconuts to refresh; its leaves to thatch houses built from its slender limbs; Petates - for sleeping, floor coverings, and hangings; tenates and baskets to store grains and small objects; hats to shade them from the tropic sun. Skins from the tigrillo, jaguar, deer, jabalí were used to keep out the cold of the mountain nights and for ceremonial dress.

The cotton native to the region, both the white and the naturally brown coyuchi (now called 'ecological'), was spun into thread using a slender rod called a malacate, then handwoven on a backstrap loom into fine fabric, gleaming white, or with colorful designs created from cochineal, caracol, añil, and other plants.

The bountiful maguey provided the thorn with which to embroider and sew the garments, ixtle fiber for mecates (ropes), hamacas and other coarse fabrics. From the pencas of the maguey came the first fermentation, pulque, and the distillate mezcal. Gifts from the gods to chase the sorrows of the human condition.

Thousands of plants and herbs were utilized for medicines and physicks. Epidemics, measles, venereal diseases were unknown before The Conquest. It was essentially a healthy society, living a relatively peaceful existence, with occasional local conflicts and, increasingly, the campaigns of the Mixtecs.

While Oaxaca during this time was a remote area, it was by no means isolated. Commercial trade routes passed through from the north to the Mayan lands, Central and South America. Voyagers arrived and departed for trade and exploration the length of the coast, where the major ports were inwhat are today Salina Cruz, Astata, Huatulco, Puerto Angel, Pinotepa Nacional.

All the products of the region were traded locally and in the distant markets to the north, as well as in the Orient, Peru, Chile and Colombia. Much of the trade was barter. Depending on the era, shells, gold, silver, feathers and dyestuffs constituted legal tender. All travel was on foot or by sea. Men and women transported goods by foot on their heads or by means of tumplines. Local custom dictated the rules in the market place and the "international trade" enriched the local economy.

This was Oaxaca for thousands of years until, in the mid-fifteenth century AD, the winds of change began to blow down through the pass from the north, into the Central Valley of Huaxyácac. The Aztecs arrived, quickly conquered the local inhabitants and established their outpost on the Cerro del Fortín. They exacted tribute from the Oaxacans. Trade with Tenochtitlán and the north increased as a consequence, but the basic fabric of living was not yet greatly changed by the presence of the Aztecas. There they remained for half a century until a more powerful invader from across the eastern sea vanquished them and descended upon this peaceful land.

Next: life during the colonial era from 1521 until Independencia in 1821.

Welcome to the continuation of an overview of life in Oaxaca, past and present. In this article, we will look at Oaxaca in the colonial period from 1521 to 1821, when Mexico received its independence from Spain.

The Aztec capital of Gran Tenochtitlán - and as a result, all Mexico - fell in August, 1521 to Hernán Cortés' handful of adventurers mounted on beasts never before seen in these lands, their skin impermeable to arrow and lance, carrying weapons which spat fire and death.

Overnight the world changed.

Nothing could remain unaffected; every aspect of life was irrevocably altered from the time the Spaniards arrived.

In pre-hispanic times, when travelers went on foot or by sea, with man as the only beast of burden, the voyagers and the swift running messengers maintained an extremely efficient communications network. Local traders visited a different regional market daily and international merchants trekked the length and breadth of Mesoamerica and the Andean ranges. By the early Sixteenth Century the Aztecs controlled virtually all territories south and east of Tenochititlán. Only Maya lands were not under Aztec domination. Nahuatl was the language spoken for trade and political purposes.

In Oaxaca, the Chinanteca were vassals of the Aztecs, working the fields and doing whatever the Aztecs demanded. The Zapotecs, too, paid tribute to them, and the various Mixtec groups continued their attempts to expand into ever more of the valleys and the coast, under less domination by Aztecs.

Thus, when it was known that invaders had arrived from the eastern sea, who might fulfill the ancient prophecies of the return of Quetzalcoatl, the Oaxacans watched and waited. When the powerful Aztecs were overcome, the Zapotecs sent delegations seeking alliances they hoped would benefit them. Cortés promptly sent Pedro de Alvarado and Gonzalo de Sandoval to the Pacific and into the Sierra looking for gold. Their reports led Cortés to reserve for himself the riches of this beautiful land, claiming the title of Marqués del Valle of Oaxaca. On November 25, 1521, Francisco de Orozco arrived in the Central Valley to take possession in the name of Cortés.

In the Sierra Norte mountains around Oaxaca city, resistance was fierce and prolonged; the Mixes, adept in the mountainous terrain, never surrendered. In Coatzlcoalcos, on the Mixtec coast, what is now the area around Pinotepa and Jamiltepec and other areas, the struggle continued. BUT, it was not force of arms which finally subdued Oaxaca. The priests and friars arrived in ever-greater numbers in their fiery zeal to eradicate paganism and subjugate, to Christ and Crown, all the benighted inhabitants of New Spain. Such was their perseverance that, in 1560, the Dominicans reported that the natives were completely docile and submissive. And for three hundred years, the area was eminently religious following, at least publicly, the tenents of the conquerors.

After the arrival of Francisco de Orozco, physical changes began immediately. In 1522 construction started on housing for the newcomers, under the administration of Cortés' brother-in-law, Juan Xuárez. The friars and settlers from across the Atlantic brought with them domestic animals unknown in this land of the sun: horses, cows, pigs, goats, sheep, chickens, ducks, geese, mules, oxen, along with their pet dogs and cats. The diet which had consisted principally of corn, beans, tomatoes, chiles and squash, with occasional fish, fowl and game from the hunt, increasingly included, for the wealthy, the flesh of these strange new beasts.

According to legend, one of Cortés' slaves brought with him three seeds which were planted in Tepeaca, and from that harvest came all the wheat in Mexico. Cortés himself, during his visit to Oaxaca in 1526, ordered the cultivation of wheat in the valley of Etla and the construction of mills. Others brought seeds and cuttings and transplanted fruit trees, vegetables and flowers. They taught the natives in Villa Alta to cultivate sugar cane. They planted mulberry trees and imported silkworms.

Padre Figueroa was sent as precentor for Oaxaca but his interests were wide ranging. He wrote a book of instructions on the cultivation of silk, including the techniques of dyeing. He explored the territory, discovering deposits of precious stones. He taught the potters to vitrify their clay, and he taught music and singing. In less than thirty years, Oaxaca was exporting seeds, plants, and gems to Central America and other parts of la Nueva España.

Although traditional mining technology was less efficient and produced metals of less purity and lower weight than those later exploited in northern Mexico, thousands of Oaxacans worked in local mines to cater to the insatiable demands of the Spaniards for gold and silver. Ships were built for the Pacific trade with the Philippines and the Orient, roads constructed for the new forms of transportation.

The majority of Spaniards came to Oaxaca for personal gain, many with the idea of making their fame and fortune quickly so as to return to their homeland. They looked upon this "barbarian land and its sub-human inhabitants" as hardships to be borne only temporarily.

In spite of the laws of Burgos, requiring more humane treatment of the indigenous peoples in New Spain, and exhortations by liberally inclined people, abuses and injustice were widespread. The "Indians" were overworked in unhealthy and unsafe conditions, receiving little or no pay and obliged to pay tribute. They were robbed of their money, adornments, food and seeds. The graves of their ancestors were desecrated in the search for treasure.

The invasion brought with it yet another consequence. It is estimated that when Cortés arrived in 1519 the native population of Mesoamerica was around 25,000,000. In 1605 - less than 100 years later - the total was slightly more than 1,000,000. The major cause for this incredible loss was diseases of European origin against which the natives had no immunity. Other important factors were overwork, social disorganization and loss of the will to live.

In Oaxaca, the few natives who survived were scattered in remote villages and continued to cultivate the land and work in the mines, usually for the masters of the haciendas. The new era was here to stay, and as a result of the mixture of the Spanish with the native population, within and outside of marriage, a new "race" evolved - the mestizo.

Spanish forms of government were imposed and important posts filled, first by Spaniards, then their sons and grandsons and eventually, toward the end of the 300-year colonial period, by mestizos. Society, politics and religion became "Europeanized". Schools and churches were erected for the instruction of the pagan and the education of the criollos (recognized sons of the foreigners).

Some of the most beautiful and impressive temples in the world were built by Oaxacan artists and craftsmen during this period: Santo Domingo, Etla, Tlacochahuaya, Teposcolula, Yanhuitlán and many others are still in use today and visited by tourists from around the world. Enormous mansions, with lush gardens and fountains, housed the rich and powerful. Aqueducts brought water from distant springs and streams to the Royal City of Oaxaca. Wool was introduced for weaving, along with the treadle loom which is still used by many artisans in the State.

During the 300 years of the Spanish domination, Oaxaca became the principal producer and exporter - to Spain - of the coveted cochineal dye. The silk industry grew to threaten Spanish interests in other areas and so the mulberry trees, which had been planted to feed the silkworms, were destroyed. The patterns of commerce were distorted to benefit the disastrous economic situation in Spain and all power and wealth was concentrated in the hands of the Spanish landowners and clergy, while the rest of Oaxaca became poorer. The constant siphoning of its resources to Spain caused a tremendous decline in the living conditions of the natives, while creating a new elite.

The reforms in Spain, the enlightenment of the American and French Revolutions, and the growing number of criollos clamoring for control of their interests, contributed to a restless second half of the Eighteenth Century. The legendary land of Huaxyácac (the original word for Oaxaca, which the Spanish could not pronounce), was filled with new constructions, customs and many things which complemented its natural beauty. It also had a decimated and impoverished remnant of its original inhabitants, the beginnings of deforestation and erosion, and a growing mestizo population seeking its place in the hierarchy.

This was the panorama at the beginning of the Nineteenth Century when the Bell of Liberty began to peal and a great shout for independence rang throughout the land.

Next: 1821 and the situation from Independence to the beginning of the third millennium A.D.

 

Let us continue our overview of life in Oaxaca, past and present. In this final section, we will review the period from Independence in 1821 through the beginning of a new millenium and the incalculable changes which these few years have seen.

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries there came about cataclysmic changes throughout the world. The Age of Enlightenment, the rejection of the ancient feudal systems and the successful republican revolutions in France and in the former British colonies in America, all generated a longing for change in New Spain.

The mestizos and criollos now constituted a growing majority and they were no longer content to render unto Spain the benefits of their labor. The clergy also wished to retain their great riches with less control from Spain.

And so on September 15, 1810 in the village of Dolores in what is now the state of Guanajuato, the criollo priest Miguel Hidalgo pronounced the great shout for Independence, exhorting the people to arms. The original intent was to create a constitutional monarchy still under the reign of the Spanish crown but with economic self-determination.

However, it soon became a popular revolution. The descendants of the original inhabitants, after three hundred years of virtual slavery, demanded independence for all and a voice in affairs. For more than ten years, battles raged, until on August 24, 1821 Spain signed the Treaty of Cordoba granting independence to its former colonies in America.

The first national government was set up by the conservative interests, creating Agustin Iturbide Emperor of México. The majority, however, rejected the dictatorship and, in November 1823, convoked the Constitutional Congress representing the 19 states, 4 territories and the Federal District which, on October 19, 1824 ratified the first constitution of the United States of México.

From the beginning of the struggle for Independence, Oaxaca was in the forefront of everything. To borrow words from the Old Testament, there were at that time truly giants in the land. Oaxacans were among the most effective of the combatants.

A few statistics:

19 June, 1821: General Antonio de Leon, of Huajuapam, proclaimed the separation of the Province of Oaxaca from Spain.

29 July, 1821: Troops under De Leon won the decisive battle against Spanish General Obeso at Etla and from that date Oaxaca considered itself independent - nearly one month before the signing of the Treaty.

(An interesting anecdote: The Oaxacan troops under De Leon entered victorious into the city of Oaxaca on July 31, 1821. At 1:00pm that day there was an earthquake in the area and the Coat of Arms of Castilla which had been displayed above the entrance of the Jesuit College fell abruptly to the ground.)

But the incredible brilliance of Oaxaca is yet to come.

1 June, 1823: De Leon declared the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca, one of The Federated states of México - when the Mexican Federation did not yet exist.

6 July, 1823: The first Provincial Congress was convened and by July 28 had established the bases for the state constitution.

In March and July of 1824: The Organic Law of the State was published but the Constitution could not be signed until January 10, 1825 because it was necessary to wait until the National Constitution was written and ratified.

Oaxaca continued to be the pioneer legislature, not only in México but in all Latin America.

March 12, 1825: The Law which arranges the administration of Justice in the Tribunals of the State was published, combining in one document the first penal and first civil procedural codes in all Latin America.

In 1827 and 1828: In three sections, Oaxaca published its first Civil Code - the first in Ibero-America. Based on, but not a copy of, the Napoleonic Code of 1804. This is only one evidence of the brilliance of the Oaxacan literati of the Nineteenth Century. But let's mention a few other statistics from the beginning of Independence in Oaxaca.

1824: the total population of the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca was 457,504, of which approximately 17,000 - mostly mestizos and criollos - inhabited the capital city of Oaxaca. The city at that time had two principal plazas, the Zócalo and San Juan de Dios, now the Benito Juárez Market. The Zócalo was cobblestone with stone benches and ash and fig trees. The downtown area consisted of fifteen streets laid out in a grid north-south and east-west, with oil lamps. Because of budget limitations, the lamps were lit only half the month, while the waxing moon provided illumination for the other fifteen days.

There were three hospitals, three apothecary shops, one granary, two jails and one theater called El Coliseo. There were two printshops (one of them government operated), one newspaper and two libraries (one public and that of Santo Domingo).

All the roads were unimproved dirt in poor condition, with the only acceptable being the road to Tehuantepec and Central America.

November 1824: the first normal school was founded and supported by the organization of Los Amigos de los Niños.

January 1827: The Instituto de Ciencias y Artes del Estado opened its doors, graduating its first lawyer in 1834 - Benito Juárez, future President of the Republic. The influence of this golden age in Oaxaca can readily be seen in the Reform Laws issued by Juárez in 1857 and during his administration.

The political goal was the creation of a yeoman economy of small farmers and industrialists with a single standard of legal justice through a democratically elected representative assembly, and legislation and institutions supporting these ideals abound. Other factors, however, were present which affected the reality.

For more than 100 years the State - and the country - were in a nearly continuous turmoil to establish the forms of administration and control. In the first twenty years there were at least twenty governors and nearly as many changes in the Presidency.

In 1836 and 1847: Two serious disruptions were the war with Texas and the Invasion by the United States. 1861 saw the intervention by France and the imposition of Maximilian Hapsburg as Emperor of México, aided by the conservatives who had been fighting for decades against any reform.

Finally, in 1867: the Republic expelled the foreign troops and the country could begin to recover from so many years of strife. Again, Oaxaca provided the leadership of the era. Benito Juárez, first as Governor of the State, then as President and Defender of the Republic, finally achieved what many call the second independence and some much-needed reforms were instituted. Unfortunately, Don Benito died in 1872 with much consolidation still to be accomplished.

In 1876: Porfirio Díaz, the great Oaxacan general and hero of many battles during the intervention, became President and Dictator until the Revolution of 1910 which again threw the country into bitter conflict for more than twenty years.

During the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Oaxaca remained basically an agricultural community with little industry. The mineral deposits were exploited in a few communities on a small scale. Roads were built, but the coming of the automobile changed the pattern of travel, leaving villages, which had been important in earlier epochs, totally outside the new communication network.

The railroad connected the city of Oaxaca with México City but cut it off entirely from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and its industrial port at Salina Cruz.

Centuries of deforestation resulted in areas of widespread erosion, particularly in the Mixteca. As early as 1900, people in search of a better life began emigrating to the cities, to agricultural areas in the north and to the United States.

Today: numerous attempts continue to rescue and improve the technology of the past for the production of silk and cochineal, without success. There is very little industry in the State: the cement plant and the Oil Refinery in the Isthmus, the Industrial Parks in Tuxtepec and Santo Domingo, while representing commercial enterprise, are almost all on a local level, with many of the consumer goods brought in from outside the State.

The principal industry, since early in the twentieth century, is tourism. With more than 500 kilometers of Pacific Coast beaches, a treasure house of archeological zones, colonial architecture, mountains, valleys, a perfect climate, Oaxaca is a paradise for the visitor. And its infrastructure supports tourism. Impressive hotels, restaurants with exquisite regional and international cuisine, folkloric entertainment, an abundance of popular art and handicrafts, modern airports and the new superhighway to Mexico, combine to make the tourist service industry an important source of employment for Oaxacans and an attraction for visitors from around the world.

Oaxaca remains one of the richest states in the world - in history, culture, tradition, natural beauty, unexploited mineral deposits and other natural resources. It is also one of the poorest - in average income, in modern and efficient services of water, drainage and electricity, health care, and, unbelievably considering its past brilliance, in quality of education.

Oaxaca has all the raw material to build a future glorious not only in words, ideas and courage but in an improved economy and quality of life for all its citizens. All we need is dedication and honest application of the means at hand to make this millennium worthy of our past.

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Día de los Muertos in Oaxaca

Drawn by the intrigue of all-night vigils in cemeteries and life-size skeletons propped jauntily in shop windows, tourists flock to Oaxaca and other points in Mexico for Day of the Dead.

During the last week in October, voyeurs come to observe and to photograph the "picturesque" practices of "quaint" indigenous Mexicans. The idea of reunions at family gravesites, complete with music, food and gaiety strike foreigners as strange, to say the least. They stare in wonder at shops filled with candy skulls and calaveras (skeletons) made of wood, paper mache, clay, wax and sugar. Dressed as doctors, judges, teachers, tennis players and prostitutes, the calaveras engage in all kinds of activities from dancing and drinking to hair styling and singing. Every conceivable profession and pastime is burlesqued. Their human-like antics draw smiles from passersby. And indeed, Mexicans view skeletons as funny and friendly rather than spooky and scary.

The concept of the Danse Macabre brought from Europe was adopted by the Mexicans and fused with the prehispanic customs and attitudes, resulting in a uniquely Mexican custom especially prevalent in Oaxaca today. According to an anonymous manuscript dated 1553, the Spanish observed: "They used to celebrate the feast of the dead, because they offered in their honor to the devil many turkeys, corn, blankets, clothing, food and other things. In particular, every household celebrated a great feast. They incensed the images they had of their dead parents, kinsmen and priests."

Today, far from an occasion for curious onlookers, traditions associated with the Day of the Dead reflect the Mexican belief in the duality of life and death. While they mourn and miss their dead loved ones, they also believe that death is just an extension of life. It's part of a natural progression, not an end. The dead continue to exist and return annually to visit their loved ones. Many of the customs, such as home altars and cemetery vigils, are to help them find their way and to welcome them home.

Just as there are differences in beliefs among the many ethnic groups which make up Oaxaca, so too are there differences in the details of the altars and the celebrations from one family to another. Typically, each family builds and decorates an altar in its home. An altar usually begins with a table on which are placed boxes to represent the tombs and all is covered with a white tablecloth or sheet. Long stalks of sugarcane or carrizo are tied to the front legs of the table and formed into a triumphal arc above the altar. Flowers, candles, images of the saints, and photos or other rembrances of the beloved dead abound, along with favorite foods, drink and other items.

For instance, if the deceased smoked or drank, then cigarettes and mezcal are placed on the altar, together with any other special foods or tributes which were a favorite in life. The markets sell miniature skeletons made of clay or paper mache for this purpose. So, if uncle Pepe liked to fish, the family places a skeleton of a man fishing on the altar. These items tell the returning dead that they have indeed found the right place and are welcome. If the altar is for an "angelito" or dead child, it will also include favorite toys and many white flowers.

Because they will be hungry after their long journey home, special offerings of food may include mole, nicuatole, pumpkin cooked with brown sugar, cane sugar and tejocotes. Beautifully decorated pan de muerto, chocolate, pecans and peanuts. Cooked chayote and fresh fruits - oranges, lemons, bananas, jícama, tejocotes, nísperos and pineapple. Then comes the lamp with oil of higuerilla, the wax candles, white or yellow adorned with black crepe paper. Markets feature the special foods, decorations, and calaveras during the month of October.

In a way, Day of the Dead is a misnomer. The principal celebrations actually take place beginning October 31 and end on November 2. In addition, special categories of deceased are honored on preceding days. On October 28, those who died in accidents, suicides, homicides and other violent deaths are honored. October 29 is for the unbaptized and October 30 for the lonely soul .

At 3 p.m. on October 31, the angelitos (children who died after being baptized) arrive to visit their families and depart at the same hour on November 1, to permit the adults to visit. From that time, until 2:00 P.M. on November 2, families decorate the tombs in the cemeteries and spend time with family members buried there, sharing offerings of food and drink with friends and relatives.

Oaxacans who live in other parts of the world and who are able to return for only one celebration during the year, try to be with their families at this time. Oaxaca is one of the few places in the world that preserves these customs and traditions, which is why it has become a favorite destination for El Dia de Los Muertos.

Ever caring, ever sharing, and hospitable, Oaxacans each year graciously receive thousands of strangers eager to witness their ceremonies in affirmation of life and what comes after. Visitors who come to learn about a culture different from their own and RESPECTULLY observe and appreciate all of the color and pageantry are welcome to spend time in cemeteries to enjoy the beauty of the decorations and the delicious food of the season. Some of you may even want to create an altar complete with a calavera for a departed loved one.

The most popular cemeteries to visit in and near Oaxaca are as below. (You may drive, hire a taxi, or take an organized tour offered at many travel agencies. Public transportation is an option also, although buses will undoubtedly be crowded at these times).

October 31 evening - Xoxocotlán, later that night - Santa María Atzompa

November 1 - San Miguel (Panteón General) in the city all day and evening.

November 2 late afternoon - San Antonino (sometimes this date changes depending on day of week - all travel agencies and tourist information centers should know of any changes).

November 2, evening and night - San Felipe del Agua

The City of Oaxaca also arranges events at the San Miguel Cemetery, such as exhibition/competition of altars, music, etc.

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In December in Oaxaca there's a fiesta almost every day, which makes this colonial city one of the most popular holiday destinations for both foreigners and Mexicans. We describe below the main celebrations. For details on other events which are sure to pop up, check with the tourist office at García Vigíl and Independencia across from the post office, or at the City tourism offices next to La Soledad. Many cultural events are held at La Casa de la Cultura.

Read the free tourist newspapers which you can find in money exchanges, restaurants and hotels.

Following are some of the highlights that await visitors in December.

DECEMBER 8 - Feast of the Virgin of Juquila (La Virgen de Juquila)

In the city, activities begin just after midnight and continue through the day on Calle Mártires de Cananea in Infonavit. In and near the Capilla de Juquila (small shrine honoring the Virgin), and in the church at San Juan Chapultepec, you'll find religious activities, processions, music, carnival rides, palo ensebado (greased pole), food and fireworks. The reason for the fiesta, however, originated more than 400 years ago in Santa Catalina Juquila, a small Chatino village approximately 175 kilometers from Oaxaca or 100 kilometers from the coastal resort of Puerto Escondido.

In this village there is a very special shrine which houses a small statue of the Virgin Mary. According to its history, the statue was brought to Oaxaca in the mid-sixteenth century by Father Jordan, assigned to teach in the city. When he left the city for another assignment, he gave the statue to his servant who returned to his village of Amialtepec near Santa Catalina . As time passed, there were reports of miracles associated with the statue of the Virgin, and people from nearby began to journey to Amialtepec to venerate it.

In 1633, a fire burned all the buildings in the village, including the humble thatch roofed temple where the Virgen de Juquila was displayed. On top of the ashes reposed the statue, completely unharmed by the fire. Not even her robes were singed but the "skin" was darkened permanently by the smoke.

After this miracle, the priests insisted on transferring the statue to a more fitting setting in the larger church in nearby Santa Catalina. But it immediately disappeared, only to reappear in the village of Amialtepec. This happened several times before the statue finally came to rest in the church at Santa Catalina. Word of its miracles spread and pilgrims came from near and far to celebrate the Feast of the Immaculate Conception in Santa Catalina Juquila. At the end of the 18th century it was estimated that as many as 40,000 pilgrims from all over Mexico and Central America visited the Virgin.

The numbers are much greater now. At the end of November, pilgrims begin their trek on foot, on bicycles, in cars and special buses, and are still returning to their homes as late as December 17. This is an interesting manifestation of faith or superstition, as you wish, but it is also a definite traffic hazard. If you are driving on the international highway or on Highway 131 (the road to Sola de Vega), please watch out for them. They travel by day and by night and do not always have adequate lighting.

DECEMBER 11

An interesting custom honoring the Virgin of Guadalupe takes place on the eve of her feast day, in the Llano Park in front of the Church of Guadalupe. Throughout the day, parents take their young children to the church to be blessed by the priests. The boys are dressed as Juan Diego and the girls as simple native girls of that period. Carnival rides and food stands fill the park.

DECEMBER 12 - The Feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe (La Virgen de Guadalupe)

The Virgin of Guadalupe is revered as the patron saint and Queen of all México and in Oaxaca she is honored with a novena (a nine-day prayer series that ends on this day). Las Mañanitas (a song for birthdays and Saints' days) is sung before the rosary at dawn, about 5 a.m. There are many activities associated with this day, some religious such as the calendas (religious processions), as well as music, fireworks and the carnival rides.

Her celebrated position dates to December 1531 - a scant 12 years after the arrival of Cortés - when the Catholic Virgin Mary appeared to humble native Juan Diego near what is now the City of México and directed that a church be built on that spot. Juan was not taken seriously by authorities who didn't believe his vision until, on a subsequent appearance, the Virgin told him to fill his cloak with roses which miraculously sprang up in that rocky place, and to take them to the bishop. When he emptied the roses at the feet of the bishop, there remained as if painted on his cloak the image of the Virgin as she appeared to Juan and as she is still depicted. This was taken as a sign from heaven and the church was built and special devotions instituted to the Virgin of Guadalupe, as she was named.

This devotion grew to be so important that in 1754 a papal bull was issued proclaiming the Virgin of Guadalupe as the Patroness and Protector of New Spain. In 1810 she was adopted as the symbol of Mexican Independence and in 1904 Pope Pius X elevated the church built on the site to the category of basilica. Every year, hundreds of thousands of Mexicans make a pilgrimage to the shrine to honor her, many ascending the stairs on their knees.

DECEMBER 16 - First of nine traditional Posadas, one each night, including Christmas Eve

The tradition of posadas began with the publication of a papal bull in 1586 ordering a "Misa de Aguinaldo," literally a Christmas Gift Mass. This was a kind of novena to take place each of the nine nights prior to Christmas Day. It was originally held in the atrium of the church, interspersing tableaus and scenes and finishing with the breaking of a treat-filled piñata. As this tradition became more popular, it gradually evolved to where, today, posadas take place in homes more than within churches.

In various neighborhoods, a different host each night represents the establishments where Mary and Joseph were refused admittance. The roles of Mary and Joseph, angels, wise men and others are assigned to neighbors and family members. In the traditional Posada, the pilgrims arrive at the designated house and request shelter. The request and the refusal are sung as antiphon and response and after several exchanges, the doors are opened and the pilgrims admitted. Inside, they find the host has prepared gifts (aguinaldos) of sweets and fruits for the children. There is music and conviviality, and as a finale the piñata is broken.

This is repeated each night and on the last night a doll, previously blessed by the priest and representing the infant Jesus, is delivered to the crèche in the church. This tradition, practiced by family and neighbors following ritual and custom, is a beautiful and moving celebration. Unfortunately, it is dying out in the cities or has turned into a nine day round of parties. If you have an opportunity to see or participate in an authentic neighborhood posada, don't miss it.

DECEMBER 18 - Feast of the patron saint of Oaxaca, the Virgin of Solitude (La Virgen de la Soledad)

According to legend, in 1620 a mule train camped outside the city of Oaxaca discovered an extra mule which did not belong to anyone in the group. The mule refused to move and when prodded rolled over and died. When the pack it carried was opened, it was found to contain the statue of the Virgin of Soledad. Taking this as a sign from heaven, the inhabitants built first a shrine, later a church and finally the imposing basilica which stands today on the spot where the statue first appeared. The statue was clothed in luxurious velvet robes embroidered with gold and pearls and wore a golden crown, much as you see her now in the Basilica.

Because of this miraculous selection of Oaxaca by the Virgin, she became the patron of not only the city but the entire state, as well as of the mariners who sailed to and from her ports. The special devotion of the sailors was so important that many walked from Huatulco and other parts on the coast, often barefoot, to worship at her shrine. And they didn't come empty handed; many brought pearls, gold and other precious stones as tokens of their devotion.

Apparently at some point during the mid-nineteenth century, many religious treasures were hidden rather than turned over to the state as required by law. Some of these were forgotten and lost. But not those of the Soledad.

The Portal de la Clavería, where the Hotel Marqués del Valle is now located, had been part of the treasury of the Archdiocese and the Cathedral prior to the Reform. In 1888 a young man leased part of the Portal to relocate his store. His store, the Pabellón Nacional, sold fine fabrics and other fine imported items popular with ladies of the city.

Soon it became necessary to knock down one of the interior walls to provide better space utilization. Once the dust had cleared, the workers discovered a space hollowed out in the floor beneath where the wall had been. In the hollow they found a large iron chest - a veritable "pirate's chest" - and a somewhat smaller wooden box. In the smaller box was a totally rotted velvet robe of the Soledad, embroidered with gold and pearls, while the chest was full of pearls and other stones which had been brought over the years by the mariners.

The owner of the store, Luis Bustamante, bought the finest velvet available in France and drew a pattern for the nuns to embroider the new robe, using the undamaged gold and pearls. These treasures were then presented to the Basilica of la Soledad.

The Virgin had a number of other robes, jewels and golden crowns. Then several years ago, almost exactly 100 years after the discovery in the Portal, there was a robbery of some of the Virgin's jewels. To date nothing has been recovered and the crime has not been solved, although recently several suspects have been detained. We don't really know exactly what was stolen and what remains but there has been no mention of the chest full of jewels. The patroness of Oaxaca still has a crown and a number of beautiful robes but where is her treasure given over centuries by her devotees?

DECEMBER 23 - Night of the Radishes (La Noche de los Rábanos)

This undoubtedly is one of the most unusual fiestas in the world and the only one of its kind. Contestants from the city and nearby villages carve radishes into detailed figures and elaborate scenes and compete in a contest sponsored by the City of Oaxaca on the night of December 23.

To fully appreciate the pageantry of this event, you must first change your idea of what a radish is. We are not talking here of a round red vegetable approximately one inch in diameter that dresses up a salad. Nor are we referring to a nice white burn-your-tongue horseradish. Imagine a nice red plant that may be as long as two feet and up to about four inches in diameter. That is the radish we are talking about! These are special radishes cultivated to attain their giant size.

Although La Noche de los Rábanos is a City-sponsored event attended by thousands, the beginning of this tradition dates back more than 200 years. Before the Spanish arrived, many of the plants we know today didn't exist in the New World. The settlers, and especially the friars, who arrived in Oaxaca brought many fruits, flowers, trees and vegetables, including the radish.

During the colonial period Oaxaca was a very small city in a lusciously fertile valley. The biggest plantation serving the city with fruits and vegetables was in Trinidad de las Huertas, roughly the area between La Noria Street and several blocks south of the Periférico. The harvest was plentiful and so much of it was brought to be sold in the market which was then set up alongside the Cathedral and in part of what is now the Zócalo. At that time there was no park, no bandstand or landscaping.

As it happened, one year around the mid-eighteenth century, the crop of radishes was so abundant that a section was not harvested and lay dormant for months. Then in December, two of the friars pulled up some of these forgotten radishes and were amazed and amused to see the size and shapes. Imagine a red carrot gone wild. It not only grows fatter and longer but it divides and grows out into strange shapes. So the friars selected "demons" and "monsters" and brought them as curiosities to the Christmas market held the day before Christmas Eve.

These huge, misshapen roots soon began to attract crowds to the area where the vegetables were sold. It was not long before they were being formed and carved to give a greater variety of shapes and figures. From this beginning evolved the idea of fashioning the radishes into nativity figures and eventually a competition began, to create more original and more perfect figures.

In 1897 the City sponsored the first contest with a prize for the best nativity scene. Thus for more than 100 years the figures have been displayed and judged on December 23. The Night of the Radishes is no longer limited to Nativity scenes. Now you may see Guelaguetzas, posadas, calendas and other representations of Oaxacan life. Also, as there are fewer growers who carve the radishes, the city now cultivates the special radishes and permits entries from sculptors and others who want to try their hand. Also, there are now scenes made from special dried flowers and corn husks.

The competing tableaus are set up in the Zócalo late in the afternoon of the 23rd and people start lining up to view the artistry as early as 4 p.m. although the judging and awarding of cash prizes isn't done until around 9 p.m. To accommodate the ever-increasing numbers of spectators, the city builds a two-level ramp that encircles the displays.

Unfortunately, the radishes wilt in just a few days, so it is not something that one can take away or keep. Still, it is a festival unique in the world and should not be missed. You will be amazed at the intricacy and ingenuity of the artists. Be sure and take pictures because your friends will never believe it otherwise when you try to describe the Night of the Radishes in Oaxaca.

DECEMBER 24 - The Good Night, (La Noche Buena)

Tonight we have the last of the posadas, followed by the calendas, the name given by the Catholic Church to the calendar of saints' days and thus by extension to the procession and festivities with which each was celebrated.

When the Spanish arrived in the "New World" they brought with them the religion, priests and customs of the old. In many cases rites and ceremonies were more or less superimposed on indigenous customs to "convert" them to Christian celebrations, often resulting in a new amalgamated tradition. In the case of the calendas, there seems to be little or no native influence in the initial style. The newly arrived friars used large banners painted with images and scenes to teach their religion. These banners evolved into the standards of each saint and parish church, which still exist today.

From earliest colonial times to the beginning of this century, the calendas flourished in Oaxaca. Although the custom seems to be dying out, during the Feast of La Soledad and Christmas Eve you will still find calendas, although not so elegant as in years past.

For days before the date of the calendas, the parishioners prepare the allegorical cars (floats) and costumes. On December 24, the Good Night, the processions form in churchyards throughout the city, march through the streets, eventually circling the Zócalo several times before returning to the church, where the infant is placed in a manger and the cock crows for Midnight Mass. Included in the procession are rockets and fireworks, decorated floats, marmotas (translucent paper spheres lighted within and carried aloft on poles), and "giants" introduced in the 18th century. These are comical, bigger-than-life paper mache people whose arms flop around as the person hidden inside struts and dances.

DECEMBER 25 - Christmas Day (La Navidad)

The city is quiet. Action has moved into churches and to family celebrations at home. You will see very few Oaxacans in the streets, stores and restaurants. The Zócalo will be virtually empty of all but visitors. Here, there is no native Oaxacan tradition; everything has come from Spain, Europe and the United States - Christmas trees, Santa Claus, turkey dinners and exchange of gifts. A typical Oaxacan dish that has come to be associated with Christmas dinner is a salad of leaf lettuce with radishes and a sweet vinaigrette dressing.

OTHER MONTH-LONG FESTIVITIES

During most of the month, the Zócalo and nearby streets are jammed with booths of handicrafts, clothes, and food. The town center is turned into a virtual fair. Wander around the Alameda (the park in front of the main cathedral just north of the Zócalo) and sample some of the special, very sweet Oaxacan desserts, such as cocada, carlitos, turrones and many more. And don't forget the buñuelos, a special sweet traditionally prepared at Christmas and served at stands alongside the Cathedral.

After eating the buñuelos, it is the custom to break the clay serving plate. One legendary version of this tradition is that during the 19th century, when there were several epidemics of cholera, orders were given to break the plates to avoid contagion. However, today it is considered good luck when your plate breaks into hundreds of pieces. This lighthearted tradition not only alleviates frustrations, keeps your throwing arm in good shape, makes a nice crashing noise but it's also good business for the potters who make the plates. So, join in the fun and break away.

NEW YEAR'S EVE

Here we are at the end of December, ready to sing Auld Lang Syne with a tear, a smile and high hopes for the best New Year yet. In Oaxaca, you'll make your toasts with sidra, a carbonated hard apple cider. This Mexican "champagne," like all champagne, can be dry, sweet or pink, and consumption in the holiday period is measured by the vat. Should you go out for a special year-end dinner you will probably indulge in elaborate pork dishes or bacalao (dried cod, richly prepared), with a wide selection of accompaniments. Don't fail to eat your traditional twelve grapes - one for each month - for good luck, and to make your resolutions which this year you are definitely going to keep.

JANUARY 6 - Feast of the Three Kings

There is still one more holiday festivity -- The Feast of the Three Kings. It is on this date that children traditionally receive gifts, commemorating the gifts carried by the Wise Men to the Christ Child. While Santa Claus has gained in popularity in Oaxaca, it is to Melchor, Gaspar and Baltazar that letters are written and who bring gifts to children who have been good all year.

Also on January 6, family and friends gather to share the rosca, a cake something like a coffee ring in which little plastic dolls are hidden. When the rosca is cut, everyone whose slice contains a doll must cooperate for the final party of the season on February 2. Depending on the number of people and the size of the rosca, there may be as many as six dolls in one cake, thus spreading the cost for the party or possibly originating more than one party.

If you haven't written to the Kings or if you weren't good all year, you can still share in the rosca so that you will be included in the party on February 2, either as host or guest.

 

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